Parts of a Paper

Once you get a handle on the typical sections of a scientific paper, reading papers will feel more approachable. Click on the interactive elements in selected pages of the sample paper below to learn more about the information you can find in each section.

Original open-access paper: Mueller, R., et al. “Quantifying Disparities in Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Levels in Drinking Water from Overburdened Communities in New Jersey, 2019–2021.” Environmental Health Perspectives 132, no. 4 (2024): e047011.

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What Type of Study Is This?

Not all scientific studies are the same. Here are some of the most common types and what they can tell us. Remember: No single study can deliver definitive “proof” of anything. Science is an iterative process in which studies build upon—and sometimes correct—past research.

Hover over the cards below to view their descriptions.

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Randomized controlled trial (RCT)

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Randomized controlled trial (RCT)

This is the experimental study design you’ll likely encounter if researchers are testing the effects of a new treatment or drug. Researchers randomly assign groups to either receive (experimental group) or not receive (control group) a treatment. In drug trials, the control group might receive an inactive version of the treatment being tested, known as a placebo. RCTs are often double-blind, which means neither the participants nor the researchers know who is assigned to which group.

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Repeated measures
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Repeated measures design

In this experimental study design (also known as a within-subjects design), researchers test the same participants multiple times and compare results from one time to another. This design controls for participants’ individual differences, since each participant serves as their own control. Longitudinal studies, which follow participants across an extended period of time, often use a repeated measures design.

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Observational studies

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Observational studies

Studies with this design don’t have experimental groups. Instead, researchers gather data about groups without introducing a treatment or other experimental variable. These studies can be powerful tools for detecting patterns in large samples and for measuring correlations between different variables. However, they can’t determine cause and effect.

Case studies: This is a specialized form of an observational study, in which researchers document a single situation—such as an individual patient’s unusual symptoms—in detail. Journalists should report on case studies with caution, since they can’t provide any broad conclusions.

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Qualitative research

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Qualitative research

This form of science explores phenomena through non-numerical methods, such as focus groups, interviews, or detailed observation. This method contrasts with quantitative research, which involves collecting numerical data and running statistical analyses to determine results. Case studies, for example, can be qualitative. Journalists covering qualitative research should consider whether a qualitative paper contributes an interesting new theory for understanding a certain group or issue and whether the researchers' arguments are supported by the data they collected.

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Review papers

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Review papers

This type of article isn’t really a study. Instead, it’s a comprehensive look at a field or subfield. In review papers, researchers summarize a large swath of existing studies and draw big-picture conclusions or identify trends. Generally, journalists don’t cover reviews on their own. Instead, reviews can be a solid starting point for getting up to speed on a field’s prevailing questions or debates.

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Meta-analyses

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Meta-analyses

Think of these as studies of studies. Like review papers, researchers use meta-analyses to draw big-picture conclusions. But this type of study takes a more analytical approach, pooling data across studies to answer a question. Meta-analyses can be a powerful approach, since they generally have larger sample sizes and more diverse samples than individual studies, both of which contribute to more generalizable conclusions. That said, each study included in a meta-analysis might have variations from the next, which could skew results.

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Commentaries

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Commentaries

These are the science version of an op-ed, in which researchers share their opinions on an ongoing debate or issue in their field, often backed up by references to scientific studies. Commentaries can be a great place to find sources with interesting viewpoints.

Match the Study Types

Study Story Template

Single-study stories are the bread and butter of science journalism. And they can be a helpful entry point for covering science because they’re straightforward and often formulaic, similar to the classic news structure. Single-study stories can be very short briefs (approximately 350 words) or slightly longer reports (approximately 1000 words). Though these aren’t narrative features, there are still ways you can craft them to be compelling.

Science is an iterative process, so a single study is just a small slice of a field. Journalists covering a study have to be careful not to present the results as conclusive or authoritative on a subject.